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Work

Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned

Sextus Empiricus

In the books devoted to logicians, Sextus confronts theories of the criterion of truth, signs, demonstration, and propositions. Rival doctrines undermine one another until Pyrrhonian suspension becomes possible.

Composition
c. 180-220 CE
Sources and precision

The internal chronology remains disputed. This range is a qualified reference point, not a certain year.

Confidence D · disputed range

Tradition
Skepticism
Period
Antiquity
Languages
Ancient Greek · English · French
Extent
927 passages · 63,717 words

Before reading

What you will learn

Compare criteria of truth, reconstruct problems of sign and proof, and distinguish sceptical refutation from a rival logical theory.

Short summary

In the books devoted to logicians, Sextus confronts theories of the criterion of truth, signs, demonstration, and propositions. Rival doctrines undermine one another until Pyrrhonian suspension becomes possible.

Long summary

The dossier asks whether sensation, intellect, or impression can guarantee knowledge, then how a sign leads from what is evident to what is not. Stoic definitions, Academic objections, and dogmatic replies are cited before receiving counterarguments.

The modern title groups Books VII and VIII of the larger work transmitted as Against the Learned. Sextus does not replace criticized criteria with an absolute sceptical criterion. He uses the history of disputes as material for a practice of withholding haste.

Inside this work

The table of contents follows the divisions actually carried by the corpus.

Work › Book › Section

Book 7446 passages
  1. Section 1
  2. Section 2
  3. Section 3
  4. Section 4
  5. Section 5
  6. Section 6
  7. Section 7
  8. Section 8
  9. Section 9
  10. Section 10
  11. Section 11
  12. Section 12
  13. Section 13
  14. Section 14
  15. Section 15
  16. Section 16
  17. Section 17
  18. Section 18
  19. Section 19
  20. Section 20
  21. Section 21
  22. Section 22
  23. Section 23
  24. Section 24
  25. Section 25
  26. Section 26
  27. Section 27
  28. Section 28
  29. Section 29
  30. Section 30
  31. Section 31
  32. Section 32
  33. Section 33
  34. Section 34
  35. Section 35
  36. Section 36
  37. Section 37
  38. Section 38
  39. Section 39
  40. Section 40
  41. Section 41
  42. Section 42
  43. Section 43
  44. Section 44
  45. Section 45
  46. Section 46
  47. Section 47
  48. Section 48
  49. Section 49
  50. Section 50
  51. Section 51
  52. Section 52
  53. Section 53
  54. Section 54
  55. Section 55
  56. Section 56
  57. Section 57
  58. Section 58
  59. Section 59
  60. Section 60
  61. Section 61
  62. Section 62
  63. Section 63
  64. Section 64
  65. Section 65
  66. Section 66
  67. Section 67
  68. Section 68
  69. Section 69
  70. Section 70
  71. Section 71
  72. Section 72
  73. Section 73
  74. Section 74
  75. Section 75
  76. Section 76
  77. Section 77
  78. Section 78
  79. Section 79
  80. Section 80
  81. Section 81
  82. Section 82
  83. Section 83
  84. Section 84
  85. Section 85
  86. Section 86
  87. Section 87
  88. Section 88
  89. Section 89
  90. Section 90
  91. Section 91
  92. Section 92
  93. Section 93
  94. Section 94
  95. Section 95
  96. Section 96
  97. Section 97
  98. Section 98
  99. Section 99
  100. Section 100
  101. Section 101
  102. Section 102
  103. Section 103
  104. Section 104
  105. Section 105
  106. Section 106
  107. Section 107
  108. Section 108
  109. Section 109
  110. Section 110
  111. Section 111
  112. Section 112
  113. Section 113
  114. Section 114
  115. Section 115
  116. Section 116
  117. Section 117
  118. Section 118
  119. Section 119
  120. Section 120
  121. Section 121
  122. Section 122
  123. Section 123
  124. Section 124
  125. Section 125
  126. Section 126
  127. Section 127
  128. Section 128
  129. Section 129
  130. Section 130
  131. Section 131
  132. Section 132
  133. Section 133
  134. Section 134
  135. Section 135
  136. Section 136
  137. Section 137
  138. Section 138
  139. Section 139
  140. Section 140
  141. Section 141
  142. Section 142
  143. Section 143
  144. Section 144
  145. Section 145
  146. Section 146
  147. Section 147
  148. Section 148
  149. Section 149
  150. Section 150
  151. Section 151
  152. Section 152
  153. Section 153
  154. Section 154
  155. Section 155
  156. Section 156
  157. Section 157
  158. Section 158
  159. Section 159
  160. Section 160
  161. Section 161
  162. Section 162
  163. Section 163
  164. Section 164
  165. Section 165
  166. Section 166
  167. Section 167
  168. Section 168
  169. Section 169
  170. Section 170
  171. Section 171
  172. Section 172
  173. Section 173
  174. Section 174
  175. Section 175
  176. Section 176
  177. Section 177
  178. Section 178
  179. Section 179
  180. Section 180
  181. Section 181
  182. Section 182
  183. Section 183
  184. Section 184
  185. Section 185
  186. Section 186
  187. Section 187
  188. Section 188
  189. Section 189
  190. Section 190
  191. Section 191
  192. Section 192
  193. Section 193
  194. Section 194
  195. Section 195
  196. Section 196
  197. Section 197
  198. Section 198
  199. Section 199
  200. Section 200
  201. Section 201
  202. Section 202
  203. Section 203
  204. Section 204
  205. Section 205
  206. Section 206
  207. Section 207
  208. Section 208
  209. Section 209
  210. Section 210
  211. Section 211
  212. Section 212
  213. Section 213
  214. Section 214
  215. Section 215
  216. Section 216
  217. Section 217
  218. Section 218
  219. Section 219
  220. Section 220
  221. Section 221
  222. Section 222
  223. Section 223
  224. Section 224
  225. Section 225
  226. Section 226
  227. Section 227
  228. Section 228
  229. Section 229
  230. Section 230
  231. Section 231
  232. Section 232
  233. Section 233
  234. Section 234
  235. Section 235
  236. Section 236
  237. Section 237
  238. Section 238
  239. Section 239
  240. Section 240
  241. Section 241
  242. Section 242
  243. Section 243
  244. Section 244
  245. Section 245
  246. Section 246
  247. Section 247
  248. Section 248
  249. Section 249
  250. Section 250
  251. Section 251
  252. Section 252
  253. Section 253
  254. Section 254
  255. Section 255
  256. Section 256
  257. Section 257
  258. Section 258
  259. Section 259
  260. Section 260
  261. Section 261
  262. Section 262
  263. Section 263
  264. Section 264
  265. Section 265
  266. Section 266
  267. Section 267
  268. Section 268
  269. Section 269
  270. Section 270
  271. Section 271
  272. Section 272
  273. Section 273
  274. Section 274
  275. Section 275
  276. Section 276
  277. Section 277
  278. Section 278
  279. Section 279
  280. Section 280
  281. Section 281
  282. Section 282
  283. Section 283
  284. Section 284
  285. Section 285
  286. Section 286
  287. Section 287
  288. Section 288
  289. Section 289
  290. Section 290
  291. Section 291
  292. Section 292
  293. Section 293
  294. Section 294
  295. Section 295
  296. Section 296
  297. Section 297
  298. Section 298
  299. Section 299
  300. Section 300
  301. Section 301
  302. Section 302
  303. Section 303
  304. Section 304
  305. Section 305
  306. Section 306
  307. Section 307
  308. Section 308
  309. Section 309
  310. Section 310
  311. Section 311
  312. Section 312
  313. Section 313
  314. Section 314
  315. Section 315
  316. Section 316
  317. Section 317
  318. Section 318
  319. Section 319
  320. Section 320
  321. Section 321
  322. Section 322
  323. Section 323
  324. Section 324
  325. Section 325
  326. Section 326
  327. Section 327
  328. Section 328
  329. Section 329
  330. Section 330
  331. Section 331
  332. Section 332
  333. Section 333
  334. Section 334
  335. Section 335
  336. Section 336
  337. Section 337
  338. Section 338
  339. Section 339
  340. Section 340
  341. Section 341
  342. Section 342
  343. Section 343
  344. Section 344
  345. Section 345
  346. Section 346
  347. Section 347
  348. Section 348
  349. Section 349
  350. Section 350
  351. Section 351
  352. Section 352
  353. Section 353
  354. Section 354
  355. Section 355
  356. Section 356
  357. Section 357
  358. Section 358
  359. Section 359
  360. Section 360
  361. Section 361
  362. Section 362
  363. Section 363
  364. Section 364
  365. Section 365
  366. Section 366
  367. Section 367
  368. Section 368
  369. Section 369
  370. Section 370
  371. Section 371
  372. Section 372
  373. Section 373
  374. Section 374
  375. Section 375
  376. Section 376
  377. Section 377
  378. Section 378
  379. Section 379
  380. Section 380
  381. Section 381
  382. Section 382
  383. Section 383
  384. Section 384
  385. Section 385
  386. Section 386
  387. Section 387
  388. Section 388
  389. Section 389
  390. Section 390
  391. Section 391
  392. Section 392
  393. Section 393
  394. Section 394
  395. Section 395
  396. Section 396
  397. Section 397
  398. Section 398
  399. Section 399
  400. Section 400
  401. Section 401
  402. Section 402
  403. Section 403
  404. Section 404
  405. Section 405
  406. Section 406
  407. Section 407
  408. Section 408
  409. Section 409
  410. Section 410
  411. Section 411
  412. Section 412
  413. Section 413
  414. Section 414
  415. Section 415
  416. Section 416
  417. Section 417
  418. Section 418
  419. Section 419
  420. Section 420
  421. Section 421
  422. Section 422
  423. Section 423
  424. Section 424
  425. Section 425
  426. Section 426
  427. Section 427
  428. Section 428
  429. Section 429
  430. Section 430
  431. Section 431
  432. Section 432
  433. Section 433
  434. Section 434
  435. Section 435
  436. Section 436
  437. Section 437
  438. Section 438
  439. Section 439
  440. Section 440
  441. Section 441
  442. Section 442
  443. Section 443
  444. Section 444
  445. Section 445
  446. Section 446
Book 8481 passages
  1. Section 1
  2. Section 2
  3. Section 3
  4. Section 4
  5. Section 5
  6. Section 6
  7. Section 7
  8. Section 8
  9. Section 9
  10. Section 10
  11. Section 11
  12. Section 12
  13. Section 13
  14. Section 14
  15. Section 15
  16. Section 16
  17. Section 17
  18. Section 18
  19. Section 19
  20. Section 20
  21. Section 21
  22. Section 22
  23. Section 23
  24. Section 24
  25. Section 25
  26. Section 26
  27. Section 27
  28. Section 28
  29. Section 29
  30. Section 30
  31. Section 31
  32. Section 32
  33. Section 33
  34. Section 34
  35. Section 35
  36. Section 36
  37. Section 37
  38. Section 38
  39. Section 39
  40. Section 40
  41. Section 41
  42. Section 42
  43. Section 43
  44. Section 44
  45. Section 45
  46. Section 46
  47. Section 47
  48. Section 48
  49. Section 49
  50. Section 50
  51. Section 51
  52. Section 52
  53. Section 53
  54. Section 54
  55. Section 55
  56. Section 56
  57. Section 57
  58. Section 58
  59. Section 59
  60. Section 60
  61. Section 61
  62. Section 62
  63. Section 63
  64. Section 64
  65. Section 65
  66. Section 66
  67. Section 67
  68. Section 68
  69. Section 69
  70. Section 70
  71. Section 71
  72. Section 72
  73. Section 73
  74. Section 74
  75. Section 75
  76. Section 76
  77. Section 77
  78. Section 78
  79. Section 79
  80. Section 80
  81. Section 81
  82. Section 82
  83. Section 83
  84. Section 84
  85. Section 85
  86. Section 86
  87. Section 87
  88. Section 88
  89. Section 89
  90. Section 90
  91. Section 91
  92. Section 92
  93. Section 93
  94. Section 94
  95. Section 95
  96. Section 96
  97. Section 97
  98. Section 98
  99. Section 99
  100. Section 100
  101. Section 101
  102. Section 102
  103. Section 103
  104. Section 104
  105. Section 105
  106. Section 106
  107. Section 107
  108. Section 108
  109. Section 109
  110. Section 110
  111. Section 111
  112. Section 112
  113. Section 113
  114. Section 114
  115. Section 115
  116. Section 116
  117. Section 117
  118. Section 118
  119. Section 119
  120. Section 120
  121. Section 121
  122. Section 122
  123. Section 123
  124. Section 124
  125. Section 125
  126. Section 126
  127. Section 127
  128. Section 128
  129. Section 129
  130. Section 130
  131. Section 131
  132. Section 132
  133. Section 133
  134. Section 134
  135. Section 135
  136. Section 136
  137. Section 137
  138. Section 138
  139. Section 139
  140. Section 140
  141. Section 141
  142. Section 142
  143. Section 143
  144. Section 144
  145. Section 145
  146. Section 146
  147. Section 147
  148. Section 148
  149. Section 149
  150. Section 150
  151. Section 151
  152. Section 152
  153. Section 153
  154. Section 154
  155. Section 155
  156. Section 156
  157. Section 157
  158. Section 158
  159. Section 159
  160. Section 160
  161. Section 161
  162. Section 162
  163. Section 163
  164. Section 164
  165. Section 165
  166. Section 166
  167. Section 167
  168. Section 168
  169. Section 169
  170. Section 170
  171. Section 171
  172. Section 172
  173. Section 173
  174. Section 174
  175. Section 175
  176. Section 176
  177. Section 177
  178. Section 178
  179. Section 179
  180. Section 180
  181. Section 181
  182. Section 182
  183. Section 183
  184. Section 184
  185. Section 185
  186. Section 186
  187. Section 187
  188. Section 188
  189. Section 189
  190. Section 190
  191. Section 191
  192. Section 192
  193. Section 193
  194. Section 194
  195. Section 195
  196. Section 196
  197. Section 197
  198. Section 198
  199. Section 199
  200. Section 200
  201. Section 201
  202. Section 202
  203. Section 203
  204. Section 204
  205. Section 205
  206. Section 206
  207. Section 207
  208. Section 208
  209. Section 209
  210. Section 210
  211. Section 211
  212. Section 212
  213. Section 213
  214. Section 214
  215. Section 215
  216. Section 216
  217. Section 217
  218. Section 218
  219. Section 219
  220. Section 220
  221. Section 221
  222. Section 222
  223. Section 223
  224. Section 224
  225. Section 225
  226. Section 226
  227. Section 227
  228. Section 228
  229. Section 229
  230. Section 230
  231. Section 231
  232. Section 232
  233. Section 233
  234. Section 234
  235. Section 235
  236. Section 236
  237. Section 237
  238. Section 238
  239. Section 239
  240. Section 240
  241. Section 241
  242. Section 242
  243. Section 243
  244. Section 244
  245. Section 245
  246. Section 246
  247. Section 247
  248. Section 248
  249. Section 249
  250. Section 250
  251. Section 251
  252. Section 252
  253. Section 253
  254. Section 254
  255. Section 255
  256. Section 256
  257. Section 257
  258. Section 258
  259. Section 259
  260. Section 260
  261. Section 261
  262. Section 262
  263. Section 263
  264. Section 264
  265. Section 265
  266. Section 266
  267. Section 267
  268. Section 268
  269. Section 269
  270. Section 270
  271. Section 271
  272. Section 272
  273. Section 273
  274. Section 274
  275. Section 275
  276. Section 276
  277. Section 277
  278. Section 278
  279. Section 279
  280. Section 280
  281. Section 281
  282. Section 282
  283. Section 283
  284. Section 284
  285. Section 285
  286. Section 286
  287. Section 287
  288. Section 288
  289. Section 289
  290. Section 290
  291. Section 291
  292. Section 292
  293. Section 293
  294. Section 294
  295. Section 295
  296. Section 296
  297. Section 297
  298. Section 298
  299. Section 299
  300. Section 300
  301. Section 301
  302. Section 302
  303. Section 303
  304. Section 304
  305. Section 305
  306. Section 306
  307. Section 307
  308. Section 308
  309. Section 309
  310. Section 310
  311. Section 311
  312. Section 312
  313. Section 313
  314. Section 314
  315. Section 315
  316. Section 316
  317. Section 317
  318. Section 318
  319. Section 319
  320. Section 320
  321. Section 321
  322. Section 322
  323. Section 323
  324. Section 324
  325. Section 325
  326. Section 326
  327. Section 327
  328. Section 328
  329. Section 329
  330. Section 330
  331. Section 331
  332. Section 332
  333. Section 333
  334. Section 334
  335. Section 335
  336. Section 336
  337. Section 337
  338. Section 338
  339. Section 339
  340. Section 340
  341. Section 341
  342. Section 342
  343. Section 343
  344. Section 344
  345. Section 345
  346. Section 346
  347. Section 347
  348. Section 348
  349. Section 349
  350. Section 350
  351. Section 351
  352. Section 352
  353. Section 353
  354. Section 354
  355. Section 355
  356. Section 356
  357. Section 357
  358. Section 358
  359. Section 359
  360. Section 360
  361. Section 361
  362. Section 362
  363. Section 363
  364. Section 364
  365. Section 365
  366. Section 366
  367. Section 367
  368. Section 368
  369. Section 369
  370. Section 370
  371. Section 371
  372. Section 372
  373. Section 373
  374. Section 374
  375. Section 375
  376. Section 376
  377. Section 377
  378. Section 378
  379. Section 379
  380. Section 380
  381. Section 381
  382. Section 382
  383. Section 383
  384. Section 384
  385. Section 385
  386. Section 386
  387. Section 387
  388. Section 388
  389. Section 389
  390. Section 390
  391. Section 391
  392. Section 392
  393. Section 393
  394. Section 394
  395. Section 395
  396. Section 396
  397. Section 397
  398. Section 398
  399. Section 399
  400. Section 400
  401. Section 401
  402. Section 402
  403. Section 403
  404. Section 404
  405. Section 405
  406. Section 406
  407. Section 407
  408. Section 408
  409. Section 409
  410. Section 410
  411. Section 411
  412. Section 412
  413. Section 413
  414. Section 414
  415. Section 415
  416. Section 416
  417. Section 417
  418. Section 418
  419. Section 419
  420. Section 420
  421. Section 421
  422. Section 422
  423. Section 423
  424. Section 424
  425. Section 425
  426. Section 426
  427. Section 427
  428. Section 428
  429. Section 429
  430. Section 430
  431. Section 431
  432. Section 432
  433. Section 433
  434. Section 434
  435. Section 435
  436. Section 436
  437. Section 437
  438. Section 438
  439. Section 439
  440. Section 440
  441. Section 441
  442. Section 442
  443. Section 443
  444. Section 444
  445. Section 445
  446. Section 446
  447. Section 447
  448. Section 448
  449. Section 449
  450. Section 450
  451. Section 451
  452. Section 452
  453. Section 453
  454. Section 454
  455. Section 455
  456. Section 456
  457. Section 457
  458. Section 458
  459. Section 459
  460. Section 460
  461. Section 461
  462. Section 462
  463. Section 463
  464. Section 464
  465. Section 465
  466. Section 466
  467. Section 467
  468. Section 468
  469. Section 469
  470. Section 470
  471. Section 471
  472. Section 472
  473. Section 473
  474. Section 474
  475. Section 475
  476. Section 476
  477. Section 477
  478. Section 478
  479. Section 479
  480. Section 480
  481. Section 481

Concepts covered

Historical context

The world around the text

The corpus manifests do not yet establish the precise place and circumstances of composition. The images below document the author’s world or the text’s transmission. They do not claim to show the exact scene of writing.

These are modern reconstructions. They situate a documented place, practice, or transmission and are not period documents.

Modern reconstruction of Rome? for Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned on Prokopton42.com
Rome?Another proposed context; the biography remains exceptionally uncertain. The generated scene uses Rome? and 2nd-3rd century CE as its documented anchors.Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sextus Empiricus
Modern reconstruction of Material world: transport and communication, 212 CE for Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned on Prokopton42.com
Material world: transport and communication, 212 CEThe Constitutio Antoniniana grants Roman citizenship to most free inhabitants of the Empire. The image situates Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned without claiming to show its scene of composition.
Modern reconstruction of Material world: technology, science, and care, 212 CE for Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned on Prokopton42.com
Material world: technology, science, and care, 212 CEThe Constitutio Antoniniana grants Roman citizenship to most free inhabitants of the Empire. The image situates Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned without claiming to show its scene of composition.

What the world looked like

Roman world, 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE

Modern reconstruction of the material world around Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned: Technology, science, and care
Technology, science, and carePaved roads, aqueducts, concrete, glassware, mills, and hypocaust heating equip some cities, but energy comes mainly from bodies, animals, water, and wood. Astronomy, geometry, natural history, and engineering compile Greek, Egyptian, and Roman knowledge. Measurement exists without a modern laboratory. Physicians, midwives, baths, plants, and rudimentary surgery can help; reliable anaesthesia, antisepsis, and antibiotics do not exist.
Modern reconstruction of the material world around Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned: Travel and communication
Travel and communicationOn foot, horseback, cart, or ship, road and sea networks connect the Empire. Travel remains slow, costly, and risky. Imperial couriers, letters on papyrus or tablets, inscriptions, and oral proclamations spread information. Everything is copied by hand.
Modern reconstruction of the material world around Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned: Farming and food
Farming and foodGrain, vines, olives, pulses, and livestock supply cities and armies; estates, slavery, and tenancy organize part of the labour.
Modern reconstruction of the material world around Against the Logicians, Books VII-VIII of Against the Learned: Clothing, women and men
Clothing, women and menTunics and cloaks are common to both sexes; the stola, toga, footwear, colours, and jewellery mark citizenship, office, wealth, and origin.
State of technology
Paved roads, aqueducts, concrete, glassware, mills, and hypocaust heating equip some cities, but energy comes mainly from bodies, animals, water, and wood.
Science and knowledge
Astronomy, geometry, natural history, and engineering compile Greek, Egyptian, and Roman knowledge. Measurement exists without a modern laboratory.
Medicine and care
Physicians, midwives, baths, plants, and rudimentary surgery can help; reliable anaesthesia, antisepsis, and antibiotics do not exist.
Transport
On foot, horseback, cart, or ship, road and sea networks connect the Empire. Travel remains slow, costly, and risky.
Agriculture and food
Grain, vines, olives, pulses, and livestock supply cities and armies; estates, slavery, and tenancy organize part of the labour.
Communication
Imperial couriers, letters on papyrus or tablets, inscriptions, and oral proclamations spread information. Everything is copied by hand.
Clothing and fashion
Tunics and cloaks are common to both sexes; the stola, toga, footwear, colours, and jewellery mark citizenship, office, wealth, and origin.

Editions, translations, and provenance

The following carriers represent the text. They do not create new passage identities.

  • Ancient Greekoriginal
  • English AI-generated translation, non-officialCodex gpt-5.6-sol · Non-official working translation · 2026-09-11
  • French AI-generated translation, non-officialCodex gpt-5.6-sol · Non-official working translation · 2026-09-11

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